It’s likely the cracking will have been caused by differential thermal expansion and contraction with the iron changing its dimenions rather more than the ceramic glaze.
What’s in an image? Sometimes quite a lot, more than meets the eye. I’m posting an image every few days.
Click images to enlarge
This is one of the old brewery plaques, once numerous across Britain. This example is in Castle Street, outside The Brewers Arms, not far from the junction with Querns Lane and Lewis Lane.
Arkell’s Brewery
The brewery originated in 1843, the year on the plaque. It was founded in Swindon by John Arkell, remains family-owned and operates as one of the oldest remaining brewery companies in Britain.
The plaque is probably of cast iron with enamel decoration and apart from some cracks seems to be in almost perfect condition. It’s likely the cracking will have been caused by differential thermal expansion and contraction with the iron changing its dimenions rather more than the ceramic glaze. The plaque has seen more than 180 day/night cycles in its time!
Brasso
The image is of Noah’s ark with a large capital letter ‘L’, so a play on Arkell (‘arkL’). There’s a long history of businesses advertising their presence with logos and other illustrations, it happens in all nations and cultures, sometimes the themes, names and images employed can become quite famous and long-lived. When I was a young child, Brasso (a British brass polish) was sold in steel containers with blue and white rays coming out in all directions. It’s still available today in cans with the same design. And it probably looked just the same in Victorian times as well! When I was young it was fitted with a low-profile, steel screw-cap, today it has a much larger, plastic cap. Otherwise, it looks identical to me.
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The simplest and cheapest way to travel would have been to walk, and people often did exactly that. For an example look no further than the old story of Dick Whittington.
What’s in an image? Sometimes quite a lot, more than meets the eye. I’m posting an image every few days.
Click images to enlarge
This photo was taken in Cirencester, peering in through an entrance to a courtyard beyond. If you are familiar with the town, I wonder if you know where this is? *The answer is at the bottom of the post.
There’s an invitation in this photo
That’s why I called it ‘Come right in!’ There seems to be an unspoken welcome here. What appeals to you most in this picture? Is it the warmth of the light? Or perhaps the sparkle of the decorative lights at the far end? Or the open doors beckoning you to enter? In days of yore, this double doorway might have allowed a horse to be brought inside for stabling, feeding, watering and grooming to recover for use the following day. The carriage would have remained on the street outside.
‘Days of yore’, this funny old expression is a poetical way of saying long ago. ‘yore’ is an Old English word closely related to the modern word ‘year’. So the sense is ‘in the days of years ago’. There’s a large garden at the back of the hotel, with a lawn scattered with tables and chairs, a lovely place to eat and drink with friends or family in the summer months. I imagine the horses sometimes being turned out to graze in a grassy field here, what a treat for them!
Shelter for travellers
Travelling on horseback or by horse and carriage was a slow affair, requiring regular stops for meals or to shelter for the night, and that’s why the old routes between towns in Britain are liberally scattered with pubs, inns and hostels. Practically every village of hamlet would have had one and towns would have had many more. They’re not hard to spot, although these days many have been converted to other uses.
It wouldn’t always have been necessary to pay for accommodation, friends or family along or near the route would have made travellers welcome and on dry, warm, summer nights it would have been possible to pull off the main roads and sleep outside or in the carriage. The simplest and cheapest way to travel would have been to walk, and people often did exactly that. For an example look no further than the old story of Dick Whittington. In Roman times there were parallel systems for official/military and public use. Every 30 to 50 km (a day’s journey) there were mansiones or official stops with good accomodation, fresh horses, dining areas, and perhaps even baths. And between these were mutationes, (literally ‘changes’) for a brief stop, a fresh horse, and perhaps some refreshments but without overnight facilities. Non-official, privately run facilities included cauponae and tabernae, some of these were a bit rough and disreputable, some were well appointed with courtyards, kitchens, and decorated dining rooms. Several modern English terms come from these words – mansion, mutation, and tavern are notable.
The Bible is usually regarded as a religious book, but it’s also a good historical source as well. Read the book of Acts, for example, to get a good idea of what travel by land and sea was like 2000 years ago. See for example Acts 28:11-16 where a place near Rome called ‘Three Taverns’ is mentioned (Tres Tabernae).
* It’s the Corinium Hotel in Gloucester Street, once the Corinium Court Hotel.
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The photo shows a valley in Greenland, a valley is a low point, but Trump’s arrogant rudeness was another kind of low-point, and his falsifications were low-points as well.
What’s in an image? Sometimes quite a lot, more than meets the eye. I’m posting an image every few days.
Greenland (click images to enlarge)
A huge rumpus has developed over Mr Trump’s fixation on owning Greenland. I’ve never been to Greenland, but I’ve seen many photos and read accounts by people who have visited or who live there. It’s a large island with hospitable inhabitants but a very inhospitable climate, mostly covered by an ice cap up to 3 km (2 miles) deep, and peopled by a rich mix of the hardy Inuit natives of the land and Danes. The photo shows a valley in Greenland, a valley is a low point, but Trump’s arrogant rudeness was another kind of low-point, and his falsifications were low-points as well.
The rumpus continued until Trump backed down, but in his Davos address and press conference Trump said many things that did not ring true in my ears and mind so I wanted to see a fact-check.
What follows was not written by me. It’s Chat GPT’s response to my request for the AI to read the transcript, fact-check the claims, and draft a 1000-word essay for me. I planned to edit it into a finished article to publish here, but I decided instead to publish the draft as is.
Read it below: ChatGPT as a guest author on my blog.
Here’s my request to ChatGPT:
Please examine President Trump’s Davos press conference, fact check his claims and draft a 1000 word essay based on your findings.
Feel free to put this prompt into an AI of your choosing, the output will vary between AIs and may change over time as well.
Fact-Checking President Trump’s Davos Speech and Press Conference
Introduction
In January 2026, U.S. President Donald Trump delivered a highly anticipated speech at the World Economic Forum (WEF) in Davos, Switzerland, and later faced questions at a press conference. His address was notable not only for its bold proclamation of U.S. ambitions — especially regarding Greenland — but also for a wide array of controversial and, in many cases, misleading or incorrect claims about international relations, economics, and domestic policy. This essay examines the context of the speech, fact-checks key assertions, and evaluates the broader implications of the rhetoric deployed.
A Controversial Theme: Greenland and U.S. Expansionism
Perhaps the most eye-catching aspect of Trump’s Davos address was his discussion of Greenland, the vast Arctic island that is an autonomous territory of Denmark. Trump reiterated his desire for the United States to acquire Greenland, labeling it “critical” to U.S. and NATO security. He also — for the first time in this campaign — publicly pledged not to use military force to obtain it. – Time
However, this position was controversial for multiple reasons:
International Law and Sovereignty: Greenland is part of the Kingdom of Denmark; any transfer of sovereignty must be voluntary and negotiated. Danish leaders have consistently rejected selling or ceding control of the territory. – AP
Misrepresentation of Defense History: Trump implied that the U.S. “gave Greenland back” after World War II. In reality, the U.S. military presence in Greenland was based on agreements that affirmed Denmark’s sovereignty over the island while allowing the U.S. strategic access — but Greenland was not “returned” in the sense of ending U.S. ownership, because it was never wholly U.S. territory. – MediaITE
Strategic Importance vs. Imperialism: Trump’s framing of Greenland as a necessary bulwark against global threats was criticized as overly nationalistic and potentially destabilizing for NATO unity. European leaders stressed sovereignty and peaceful cooperation. – Guardian
Although Trump’s explicit rejection of military force was welcomed by markets and some commentators, the overall push was seen as a diplomatic provocation rather than constructive strategy. – Time
Misleading and False Claims
Beyond Greenland, Trump’s remarks included a number of statements that were factually inaccurate or misleading. Fact-checkers from multiple outlets documented significant issues:
1. NATO Contributions and Benefits
Trump characterized NATO as a burden on the United States, asserting the U.S. “never got anything” out of the alliance. This framing ignores both measurable benefits and longstanding structural agreements:
The U.S. does bear a large share of NATO defense spending, but it does not pay 100% of it; in 2024, U.S. defense spending comprised roughly 60-plus percent of total NATO expenditure. – NewsChannel3-12
NATO membership delivers both strategic security for the U.S. and economic and political stability among allies, which benefit U.S. interests. – NewsChannel3-12
2. Wind Energy and China
Trump derided renewable energy efforts, particularly wind power, and claimed he couldn’t find evidence of wind farms in China. This is demonstrably false:
China ranks first in the world in installed wind power capacity, with roughly 40–45 percent of global capacity. – Reddit
Such misstatements underscore pervasive misunderstandings about energy infrastructure.
3. Trade and Economic Claims
Trump’s economic narrative included assertions about U.S. trade imbalances and export markets that were incorrect:
He claimed the European Union does not buy American farm products and automobiles, implying that U.S. exports are negligible. In fact, the EU is a major market for U.S. agricultural exports and is among the top vehicle export destinations for U.S. manufacturers. – WRALNews
Additional claims about trade deficits — especially exaggerated figures about China and Canada — were similarly misleading when evaluated against official trade statistics. – WRALNews
4. Election and Historical Falsehoods
During the speech, Trump reiterated the claim that the 2020 U.S. presidential election was “rigged.” This assertion has been conclusively debunked by multiple courts, election officials, and independent fact-checkers. – HindustanTimes
Furthermore, in discussing geopolitical conflicts, Trump mischaracterized some historical events (e.g., conflating diplomatic tensions or border disputes with actual wars). – MediaITE
Economic Performance and Domestic Policy
Trump also touted U.S. economic performance under his administration, claiming low inflation and high growth. While inflation has been reduced from peaks seen earlier in the decade, some of Trump’s accompanying statistics — like headline growth figures and the scale of investment commitments — were overstated compared with independent economic data. – NewsWeek
His framing of U.S. economic strength was intended to contrast with his characterisation of the previous administration, though key metrics show that inflation, growth, and market performance fluctuate due to broader global and domestic conditions, not solely presidential policies. – NewsWeek
Rhetoric, Reactions, and Implications
Trump’s Davos speech was met with a mixture of shock, criticism, and, in some quarters, applause for his combative posture. European leaders, especially from Denmark and the EU, expressed concern about his Greenland remarks and his critiques of European energy and economic policy. – Guardian
Financial markets reacted positively to the pledge not to use force in pursuing Greenland, but broader geopolitical analysts warned that pushing such rhetoric in a forum dedicated to economic cooperation risked undermining U.S. credibility. – Time
Conclusion
President Trump’s appearance at the 2026 World Economic Forum was consequential — not just for its content but for the contradictions and controversies it generated. While his call for U.S. leadership and economic strength resonated with some domestic audiences, the fact-checking analysis reveals that many claims were inaccurate, misrepresented complex facts, or repeated debunked narratives. The emphasis on territorial ambitions like Greenland, along with misstatements about trade, energy, and alliances, highlights the challenges of integrating nationalist and transactional rhetoric into forums predicated on multilateral cooperation.
In sum, the Davos speech stands as a stark example of how high-level international engagement can be shaped as much by political theatre and domestic audience signaling as by policy substance — and the importance of grounding such speeches in verifiable facts if they are to foster trust and constructive global dialogue.
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The idea of a wool market is an appropriate one for the town; in medieval times the wool trade was of high importance in the Cotswolds where a series of wool towns developed, of which Cirencester was the largest.
What’s in an image? Sometimes quite a lot, more than meets the eye. I’m posting an image every few days.
Woolmarket (click images to enlarge)
The Woolmarket is a small shopping area between Dyer Street and The Waterloo in Cirencester. It looks old, it’s presented as old, but in fact it’s a relatively recent development, created in the 1980s and further improved in 1996. The idea of a wool market is an appropriate one for the town; in medieval times the wool trade was of high importance in the Cotswolds where a series of wool towns developed, of which Cirencester was the largest. The town’s Parish Church of John Baptist was built and extended in part with money from the wool trade as was the old Abbey before it.
Many of the Georgian frontages around the centre of the town began their lives as the homes of wealthy wool merchants. They are now mostly offices or flats, and sometimes have the ground floors replaced by retail businesses with large windows for display. But look up and you’ll see right away two or three floors of Georgian architecture above those ground floors.
The photo
I took this photo on a wet evening on 18th January 2026, the paving slabs of natural stone glistening in the overhead lighting and the more distant buildings softened by descending mist as the damp atmosphere cooled down following sunset. It’s very typical of January in the Cotswolds. Sometimes we get snow, and heavy frosts are possible, but often it’s just a chill damp with muddy fields and foggy mornings.
The sheep statue
In the middle of the photo, look into the middle distance and you may spot the statue of a traditional Cotswold Lion sheep. This famous old breed was once widespread across a huge expanse of the Cotswolds, though now it is a rarity.
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You see the lights and you might hear the engine or the sound of the tyres on the road surface. But there’s no way you could tell the make and model of the car. The details are hidden.
What’s in an image? Sometimes quite a lot, more than meets the eye. I’m posting an image every few days.
Click images to enlarge
Sometimes it’s foggy in Cirencester. The Cotswolds is in the south-west of England and the prevailing winds come from the south-west and are laden with water vapour after crossing the Atlantic. As the air rises over the Cotswolds and other hilly country, some of that water vapour condenses as rain and some as fog. Once the sun appears, any mist or fog clears away with the rising temperature.
It’s all in the detail
As you look at the scene in the photo, you’ll notice right away that the fog obscures details on the church tower while the details on the nearer, and much less tall buildings in the foreground are quite sharp. This is always the way of things in foggy conditions. Nearby objects reveal more detail than those further away. If you stood near the base of the tower and looked towards the top you’d see the same thing. Stonework at the same level as your head would be clear, but raise your gaze to the top of the tower and you’d see few details. In heavy fog you might not see the top of the tower at all.
This is a great illustrative parallel of our ability to see spiritual details too. Look at the people around you and you see a lot of detail – hair colour, eye colour, style of hair, details of clothing , now look up and the detail seems to vanish. The Bible tells us that the Creator is hidden in dark clouds. The English words dark and darkness didn’t traditionally mean an absence of light, the sense was of something hidden from view. When you look into the headlights of a car coming towards you at night you see the lights and you might hear the engine or the sound of the tyres on the road surface. But there’s no way you could tell the make and model of the car. The details are hidden although (or even because) there’s so much light.
Yahweh (God) is like that too, as you get to know him the first thing you’ll understand is the simplest thing of all – he is there! Just an indistinct outline in the distance. As you draw closer, gradually you’ll begin to see how brightly he shines, but spend some time with him and more detail will appear, not what he looks like because he’s not a physical object in our universe, but you’ll start to see that he consists of a pure love, you’ll notice that he cares deeply about everyone, not just his followers, that he is the source of such things as peace, and grace, and joy, and that he knows you better than you know yourself. This experience feels very like walking towards an object almost invisible in the fog and discovering it to be a beautiful tree or an an amazing building. And the closer you get, the more detail you can distinguish – the veins on the leaves or the surface details in the stone.
Making a start
But how can you begin to know him? Where do you start? The answer is simple, begin right where you are right now. Start by noticing that the people you know (and you yourself) have a threefold nature. You are physical, like a stone or a puddle of water, but you also have a mind – utterly unlike a stone or a puddle! Is it so surprising, then, that there’s a third dimension to your existence and nature? These dimensions overlap yet they are distinct.
Your physical presence can be measured just like that of a stone, you have a certain size, shape, and mass, if you’re in motion you have measurable velocity, direction of movement, momentum and so forth. You possess colour and reflectivity. But overlapping with this physical presence are your senses of touch, sight, hearing and the rest.
The stone lacks these abilities. You have a brain that constantly evaluates the information coming from your senses and combines them into knowledge of your environment. This makes you aware of other objects (don’t trip over that stone, don’t step in that puddle), other lifeforms (chase away the fly that has landed on your arm, don’t step on that frog on the footpath), other people (talk to your neighbour, pay for the item you just bought, wave to your friend across the road, ask for directions).
Pushing through the fog
And that third dimension? Most of the overlap here is with your emotions, the love you feel for family and close friends, the fears you entertain (fear of death, fear of injury, fear of loss). There’s a spiritual element to your nature that overlaps mere emotion and goes way beyond feelings. This is another dimension that you can explore and it’s part of our nature that we sometimes fail to consider and rarely, if ever, visit.
So go there, move towards that somewhat foggy zone and the further you go, the more you will see. And I can assure you, the more you see the more you’ll be drawn along to explore further because what you find will be delightful, encouraging and fulfilling. And remember, in the fog, the further and higher you look the less you will see. But go closer and the details will become clearer. Drawing close is the only way to deal with fog.
And there’s a huge additional advantage, the physical and the mental aspects of your existence will pass away, the atoms of your body will be recycled, dispersed, and used to construct other things. But the overlapping spiritual aspects remain, because they are not dependent on the physical world in any way, they remain.
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How extraordinary to see both lava and snow close together, lava inside the volcano and snow on the slopes outside. Truly, the natural world is completely amazing.
What’s in an image? Sometimes quite a lot, more than meets the eye. I’m posting an image every few days.
Click images to enlarge
This photo really is extraordinary. Take a guess at what might be going on here first. Then I’ll tell you all about it.
Needless to say, I did not take this photo. It was in Nature Briefing, anyone can sign up free of charge for science news and photos from the prestigious scientific journal, Nature. The signup link is in the upper, right of the Nature home page.
The image was made by the photographer Francisco Negroni and shows Villarrica, described as the most dangerous volcano in Chile. (You can buy a much more detailed version of this image online.)
Two heavy, dark clouds have formed over the volcanic caldera, illuminated by the lava. The heat of the lava below has evaporated the central part of both these clouds, forming them into perfect rings. The sky was already dark enough for stars to be visible. How extraordinary to see both lava and snow close together, lava inside the volcano and snow on the slopes outside. Truly, the natural world is completely amazing.
Think about that last point, lava is literally red hot, around a thousand degrees C, snow is made of water ice, it can’t exist above 0 C at atmospheric pressure. The volcanic rock between the lava and the ice provides sufficient thermal insulation to allow these incompatible materials to survive inside and outside the volcanic cone at the same time!
People of faith may say that God made it that way, people of science will provide a physical explanation. Many people, perhaps even most, might argue these two views are incompatible. But that’s not necessarily the case; there are many people who are both good Christians (or Muslims, Jews, Buddhists or Hindus) and also good scientists. Very often faith communities have enabled and supported great advances in science and technology, enabling us to understand and explain all sorts of phenomena in mechanistic ways that sometimes seem not to require any kind of faith at all. It’s a conundrum that philosophers sometimes explore and discuss.
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At Vale Road in Stratton on the northern edge of the Cotswold town of Cirencester, residents (and one in particular) put a lot of effort each year into decorating their homes and gardens with all sorts of coloured and illuminated decorations. And they invite the people who come to look to make a contribution to Macmillan Cancer Support.
What’s in an image? Sometimes quite a lot, more than meets the eye. I’m posting an image every few days.
Click images to enlarge
People love Christmas lights and decorations, and people hate illness particularly if there’s no cure. So can Christmas lights help people with incurable illness? Yes they can! But…how?
Well, one way is to use the Christmas decorations to raise money for charity, and that’s what one street in Cirencester has been doing every year for some time now.
There’s more inside – a model village!
At Vale Road in Stratton on the northern edge of the Cotswold town of Cirencester, residents (and one in particular) put a lot of effort each year into decorating their homes and gardens with all sorts of coloured and illuminated decorations. And they invite the people who come to look to make a contribution to Macmillan Cancer Support. This charity provides care, help, nursing and support for cancer patients and their families right at the time when they need help most. They will help families care for a mum, a dad, or a grandparent at home.
The heart of the action
If you live in Cirencester or the local area, why not drive out to Vale Road and park in a nearby street like Vaisey Road, Tinglesfield or Park View? (But please don’t block any driveways or park near junctions.) Then walk the short distance to Vale Road. You can pay for a tour of the best of the lights, delight your children (or grandchildren), and help support a great cause all at the same time. What could be better than that?
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Petal doubling makes flowers more showy, but often at the cost of the ‘doubled’ flowers being less interesting to pollinating insects. The additional petals may be modified stamens so less pollen is produced. Compare a wild rose to a garden rose and you’ll see what I mean.
What’s in an image? Sometimes quite a lot, more than meets the eye. I’m posting an image every few days.
Click images to enlarge
These autumn leaves are on a purple Cotinus coggygria bush, common name ‘smokebush’. Like many trees and shrubs at this time of year, Cotinus leaves change colour in autumn before falling to the ground. The shrub will produce fresh, new leaves in the spring. But look more closely and you may see something else.
The leaves in the image have developed interveinal patches of necrotic tissue, making the plant even more striking in autumn. I had never noticed this condition before moving to Cirencester, but there’s a Cotinus in the grounds of the Stratton House Hotel and Spa that does this annually. The shrub seems healthy in the spring and summer. For a week or two at the end of October this patterned necrosis makes the autumn leaves look even more spectacular.
Irregularities of this kind are common in both animate and inanimate natural systems and not infrequently appear as deliberate ‘enhancements’. Here are one or two notable examples:
Leaf variegation – Gardeners and plant breeders select and propagate from stable variegations. Normally plants with variegation grow more slowly because the efficiency of photosynthesis is compromised.
Petal doubling – This make flowers more showy, but often at the cost of the ‘doubled’ flowers being less interesting to pollinating insects. The additional petals may be modified stamens so less pollen is produced. Compare a wild rose to a garden rose and you’ll see what I mean. How often do you see bees working garden roses?
Variations in animal characteristics – amongst cats and dogs (and also budgerigars, canaries, parrots and chickens you’ll see size and shape changes as well as behavioural, colour and pattern modifications. Compare a Jack Russell with a retriever or a blue budgie with a green one and you’ll find plenty of differences to ponder.
Frost hardiness in plants. Frost sensitive species cannot survive winter in temperate or arctic conditions, so hardiness is a prized feature of many garden plants, and plant breeders pay attention to things like this. A Dahlia or Chrysanthemum that can flower for an extra week or two in the autumn may be worth a higher price, for example.
Fruit colour and flavour components. These days strawberries are much larger than when I was child, and they are often red inside, not just on the outer surface.
Many variations of this kind are deliberately selected for by plant and animal breeders.
Certain other changes have been caused deliberately, even in humans. Lower lip enlargement, neck ringing to generate extended neck length, foot binding, and forms of male and female circumcision have been required for a variety of religious and cultural reasons. Hair styling, removal, or transplantation, piercing of ears, noses and other body parts are common, and don’t forget tattooing. And in plants; pruning, clipping, or bonsai are widely employed.
In the world of rock and stone, coloured and uncoloured crystals may be prized as jewels and fetch fantastic prices. I wrote about an example of this, a geode I spotted in an ordinary, traditional, Cotswold dry stone wall.
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The abbey’s construction was a huge project continuing throughout the 12th century. To fund the ambitious project, Henry I and his successors, Henry II and Richard I, granted the abbey revenues and privileges, such as exemption from tolls, access to commerce, and timber and stone for construction.
What’s in an image? Sometimes quite a lot, more than meets the eye. I’m posting an image every few days.
Click images to enlarge
In medieval times there was an Augustinian Abbey in Cirencester. Like so many abbeys and monasteries in the United Kingdom it was dissolved during the reign of King Henry VIII and afterwards demolished. The outline of the walls is marked in the Abbey Grounds with small, square paving slabs, and a few of the column bases are visible too, but that is all that remains above ground where the Abbey once stood. There are some additional carved stones and other items in the Corinium Museum.
The photo shows a Lego model of the Abbey, currently on display in the Parish Church. You can see a Lego tree in the garden within the cloisters, and part of the nave of the Abbey church. The model is complete with its tower although this doesn’t appear in the main photo, but it’s there in the image below.
Construction and history
The Abbey and tower
Some of the political and practical history of the founding and later dissolution of the abbey are well described in blog articles published by the Corinium Museum. These articles, and the Wikipedia article are well worth reading. They are linked below.
Long before the Abbey was built the land where it later stood was part of the Roman City of Corinium Dobunnorum; the River Churn (in those times named Kern, Kerin or Corin) had been divided into two, one part outside the city walls as a defensive feature, the other part within the city as a source of water for drinking, washing, for industry, building and so forth. The Saxons, moving West into the still Romano-British part of what is now South-West England, took control of the area, but had no use for a derelict Roman city. However, there was a Roman church building in the area where the abbey would later be founded, and a Saxon church was built over the Roman church.
Early in the 12th century, King Henry I founded St Mary’s Abbey, building the chancel on the site of the Roman and Saxon churches. About 1130, Abbot Serlo arrived with a community of canons to set up residence .
The abbey’s construction was a massive project continuing throughout the 12th century. To fund the ambitious undertaking, Henry I and his successors, Henry II and Richard I, granted the abbey revenues and privileges, such as exemption from tolls, access to commerce, and timber and stone for construction. Henry II allowed the abbey the revenues and control of the town (or ‘vill’) of Cirencester around 1155, initiating centuries of friction with the local townspeople. The abbey church was consecrated in 1176 in the presence of King Henry II and several bishops, but building work on the cloisters, refectory, dormitories, and the abbot’s house continued for many more years.
The result of all this effort was the most wealthy and influential Augustinian abbey in the Kingdom. The abbey flourished through its ownership of very large estates in the Cotswolds and an important role in the very profitable medieval wool trade.
Dissolution
The townspeople repeatedly asked the Crown to grant them a borough charter, but this was consistently and strongly opposed by the abbots. In the end, Henry VIII’s dissolution of the monasteries ended with the destruction of the abbey and the confiscation of much of its wealth and property. A Royal Commisioner, Robert Southwell arrived in the town on 19th December 1539 to receive the surrender from the last abbot, John Blake. There was no resistance, and the abbot and monks received pensions, but the buildings were torn down and everything of value was sold off.
Religion or faith?
As with so many JHM articles, as I write I am deeply struck by the huge gulf between religion (usually a very worldly affair as in the history of Cirencester Abbey) and faith (with its basis not so much in what we think as in who we are and how we live.) The distinction is essential if we are to live full lives, discovering who Jesus is and why he matters so much.
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All the booster engines lit correctly and stage separation was successful. The boostback burn was good too, but the landing burn failed and Superheavy was lost.
SpaceX’s Starship programme is an attempt to build space launch and transport equipment to open up the Solar System for travel and cargo delivery at greatly reduced cost, and increased capacity and frequency. It seems a good time to collect the details together in one place because SpaceX is now almost ready to put Starship into orbit and launch Starlink satellites from it. That’s a very significant development.
Progress so far can be divided into three major phases that SpaceX terms ‘Blocks’. Think of them as versions. Block Zero began the development of early forms of hardware, Block One continued this to test all aspects of flight and landing, and Block Two has just ended with the very successful Flight 11, and now Block Three has begun. Three kinds of hardware are being developed for each block- Stage Zero is the ground launch equipment, the launch mounts, fuel storage and loading facilities, and the launch control and monitoring equipment. Stage One is the Superheavy Booster that places the Starship orbital vehicle into flight above the bulk of the atmosphere, while Stage Two is Starship itself which accelerates to orbital velocity or beyond. Specialised versions of Stage Two will act as orbital fuel tankers, and eventually land on the Moon, Mars and perhaps other destinations. I list below, only flights regarded as at least partially successful. Let’s step though them in sequence. It’s also well worth watching Scott Manley’s video overview of the entire Starship test program.
Block Zero
Flight0A (3rd April 2019) (There are no videos) – The first flight used Starhopper, a reduced size, single-engined, test vehicle with an early version of the Raptor engine burning liquid methane and liquid oxygen. It was a tethered hop and reached the giddy height of 0.3 m. But this was enough to prove the engine and its control systems were performing correctly.
Flight 0B (5th April 2019) (There are no videos) -Starhopper’s second flight, tethered again and reaching a height of 1 m. SpaceX had no Flight number designations for these tethered hops.
Flight 1 (25th July 2019) (There are no videos)- This time Starhopper flew untethered, reached a height of 20 m, and landed safely. This proved engine gimballing was adequate for a controlled ascent and descent.
Flight 2 (27th August 2019) (Video) – This was Starhopper’s final flight, reaching 150 m and travelling horizontally before safely landing proving horizontal movements could be well-controlled. It was retired after this flight.
Flight 3 (4th August 2020) (Video) – The first flight of a full size Starship (SN5), another 150 m hop, the payload section was absent and a steel mass simulator was carried instead, still using just a single Raptor engine. Once again, the proven flight envelope was increased, this time with a vehicle of similar size and weight to a Starship returning from orbit.
Flight 4 (3rd September 2020) (Video) – 150 m hop, Starship (SN6), a similar flight to SN5.
Flight 5 (9th December 2020) (Video) – 12.5 km, Starship (SN8) had a successful launch and flight but failed landing. The mass simulator was replaced by a nose cone and control flaps this time, and three Raptor engines were installed. The new belly flop and flip manoevres succeeded on their first attempt, but the landing failed. This flight climbed to the same altitude as the highest passenger planes.
Flight 6 (3rd March 2021) (Video) – 10 km, Starship (SN9) Similar success and failure to Flight 5.
Flight 7 (3rd March 2021) (Video) – 10 km, Starship (SN10). This was the first successful landing, though it was a very heavy landing and the damaged ship exploded soon after landing.
Flight 8 (30th March 2021) (Video) – 10 km, Starship (SN11). The vehicle exploded during descent.
Flight 9 (5th May 2021) (Video) – 10 km Starship (SN15). This was the first completely successful flight and landing. There was a fire in the engine compartment after landing, but this was eventually extinguished and the landed Starship survived. So now SpaceX had a design that could could complete the horizontal descent, flip to a vertical position at low altitude, and land.
Block One
Block One flights began in April 2023, the objective was to move to flying both the Superheavy booster and the Starship orbital vehicle together, having already mastered the horizontal fall of Starship and the flip manoevre needed to bring it back for a landing. It’s worth looking at Scott Manley’s excellent video summary of the Block One series of flights.
Integrated Flight Test 1 (20th April 2023) (Video) (Scott Manley’s analysis) – Orbital test fight, the combined craft managed to take off with twice the thrust of the Saturn 5 Moon rocket, though five of the thirty-three booster engines failed and the Starship failed to separate from the booster. So most of the flight objectives were met. This represented a huge step forward for Starship; SpaceX now had a system that could lift off and reach the upper atmosphere. Unfortunately the launch all but destroyed the launch pad (stage 0).
Integrated Flight Test 2 (18th November 2023) (Video) – This time all the booster engines lit correctly and stage separation was successful. But both stages were lost. Stage separation was another large step forward for Starship.
Integrated Flight Test 3 (14th March 2024) (Video) – This time all the booster engines lit correctly and fired for the full intended flight duration. Stage separation was successful too and Starship could have achieved orbit had its six engines been allowed to fire just a little longer. However, the ship failed during its brutal re-entry.
Integrated Flight Test 4 (18th November 2023) (Video) – This time all the booster engines lit correctly and stage separation was successful. The boostback burn was good too, but the landing burn failed and Superheavy was lost shortly before it was expected to land. Meanwhile, Starship fired all six engines for stage separation and the boost to almost orbital velocity. For safety reasons there was again no attempt to reach full orbit on this flight. but the Starship started to re-enter the atmosphere over the Indian Ocean before reaching Australia. The Pez dispenser cargo door opened, but failed to close fully. Starship re-entered under control of the flaps but didn’t attempt a landing burn. This flight took the project forward just as far as intended, so a good result and an excellent preparation for following flights. SpaceX had demonstrated atmospheric re-entry under flap control.
Flight Test 5 (13th October 2024) (Video) (Scott Manley’s analysis) – The Superheavy Booster delivered Starship to the upper atmosphere correctly, returned to the launch site, and was successfully caught for the first time, another huge step forward. Starship made a safe atmospheric re-entry and splash down in the Indian Ocean on target and under control. This was the first time both the booster and Starship completed a full mission.
Flight Test 6 (19th November 2024) (Video) – The Superheavy Booster was diverted from a catch attempt and landed in the ocean because the catch mechanism on the tower signalled it was unready. Starship re-lit one of its Raptor engines in flight and splashed down successfully and on target in the Indian Ocean. The re-light is important because it builds confidence that a fully orbital Starship would be able to deorbit in a properly planned way and not come down unpredictably, endangering people and property on the ground.
Block Two
Block Two flights began with flight test 7. The Block Two Superheavy Booster and Block Two Starship are redesigns based on lessons learned from flying the Block One versions.
Flight Test 7 (16th January 2025) (Video) (Scott Manley’s analysis) – The Superheavy Booster flew nearly perfectly and was caught successfully by the arms on the launch tower as with Flight Test 5. However, Starship suffered some engine failures and was destroyed before performing the engine relight and other tests it was flown to perform.
Flight Test 8 (6th March 2025) (Video) (Scott Manley’s analysis) – The Superheavy Booster performed well again and was caught by the tower arms. But Starship lost control and was destroyed again. At this point SpaceX have a successful booster design but the ship is still not reliable.
Flight Test 9 (27th May 2025) (Video) (Scott Manley’s analysis) – This time, the Superheavy Booster flew flawlessly but was deliberately not caught on this flight. It was brought back at an experimentally higher angle of attack. Starship fired all six engines for the full time expected and then shut them down cleanly.
Flight Test 10 (26th August 2025) (Video) (Scott Manley’s analysis)- One of Superheavy’s centre engines was deliberately disabled and it used an off-centre to complete a successful landing burn over the Gulf of Mexico. There was no attempt to catch Superheavy, but the test showed that it could have been caught even using the off-centre engine. Starship fired a single engine briefly to demonstrate it could have been safely de-orbited if required, and some dummy Starlink satellites were deployed successfully as well. Despite an unexpected explosion during re-entry, the vehicle survived, performed the landing flip manoevre and touched down successfully and on target in the Indian Ocean.
Flight Test 11 (13th October 2025) (Video) (Scott Manley’s analysis)- This was the most successful test flight so far. Both the Booster and the Ship performed flawlessly and met all objectives. The dummy satellites were released, an engine was re-lit in space and the ocean landing was perfect as well.
Block three
The first Block Three flight is expected early in 2026. Stages 0, 1 and 2 will all be fresh designs and we expect further advances including orbital flights releasing a new version of the Starlink satellites, more booster catches, and the first Starship catches as well. There may be tests of fuel transfer between ships, tests of Moon landing hardware, and the first launches of Starships to Mars, possibly with a crew of robots. Get ready for an exciting time.
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